Introduction
Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn. Muhammad al Tusi al-Ghazali , b. 450H/1058M , d. Dec. 18, 1111M/505H ; was an outstanding jurist, theologian and sufi. Al-Ghazali was born in Tus, near the modern town of Mashhad in Khurasan (in present-day Iran). He is one of the most revered personalities in the Muslim world and contributed greatly not only in the three fields but also in the development of Islah and Tajdid movement as well. In his spiritual autobiography , al-Munqidh min al-Dalal (The Deliver from Error), he describes the great crisis that forced him in 1095 to abandon his career in Baghdad and to search for an inner , direct knowledge of the reality of God. He visited Damascus, Jerusalem and Makkah and lived with some disciples in his birthplace , Tus , before he was persuaded to return (1106) to his teaching career. He retired to Tus in 1110. Of his more than 50 books , the Tahafut (The Incoherence of the Philosophers) and the ihya ‘Ulum al-Din (The Revival of the Religious Sciences) are particularly important[1].
Religious and Political Background of al-Ghazali
Prior to his time, Khurasan had already -produced so many eminent sufis that Hujwiri (d. 464H/1071M) called it “the land where the shadow of God’s favor rested”[2]. The town of Tus also produce outstanding personalities such as Firdawsi , the poet and Nizam al-Mulk (d. 485H/1092).
Since al-Ghazali’s life and works were intertwined with the various contending religious and political movement prevailing in the Islamic World of his time, it is necessary to make brief reference to some of them.
The Seljuks of Turk had by now brought the Eastern provinces of the Islamic world under Sunni rule after more than a century of domination by Shi’ite rulers of the Buwaihid house . The life span of al-Ghazali who died in 505H/1111M at the age of fifty three, thus almost coincides with that brief but politically volatile period in the history of the Seljuk Dynasty. Al-Ghazali also lived to witness the swift decline of the dynasty following the assassination of Malik Shah , one of the Seljuks great rulers.
The Seljuk rulers , like al-Ghazali, were Shafiites in law and Ash’arites in their theological persuasion. Consequently, under their leadership, al-Ghazali gained respect ; the most important political figure of Seljuk rule to be associated with al-Ghazali scholarship was Nizam al-Mulk. He was a wazir for about thirty years and brought stability to the Seljuk Empire and succeeded in reducing religious tensions and conflicts among the various schools of faith and Kalam. Nizam al-Mulk even adopted Ash’arism as the official theology of the Seljuk Empire.
Al-Ghazali’s Early Education and Intellectual Interest
Al -Ghazali received his early education in Tus itself. His early education included the learning of Quran , Hadith, Fiqh and Kalam . Other than Quran and Hadith , other knowledge were learned at Naishapur. Al-Ghazali studied Kalam with al-Juwayni , an ash’arite theologian (mutakallim) . It is claimed that al-Juwayni introduced al-Ghazali to the study of philosophy (falsafah)[3].
Another area of study which engaged al-Ghazali’s mind during his stay in Naishapur. He studied its theory and theory and practice under the guidance of al-Farwadhi’s path (tariqah) and imitated all the practices that were put before him. He took part in dhikrs (invocations) and passed through all the laborious and wearying life of a Sufi. But he did not attain what he sought[4].
Al-Ghazali Intellectual Crisis
The true nature of the crisis seems to have been epistemological since it was essentially a crisis of finding the rightful place for each of the human faculties of knowing within the total scheme of knowledge . In particular, it was a crisis of establishing the right relationship between reason and intellectual intuition .
Al-Ghazali must have been troubled by the confrontation between reliance on reason on one hand as in the case of the philosophers; and reliance on supranational experience on the other , as in the case of the sufis. Al-Ghazali claimed that he was delivered from crisis not through rational argument or rational proofs but as of a results of a light (nur) which God cast into his head.
Post-Crisis Intellectual Life and Works
Thus, al-Ghazali upon the resolution of the crisis , proceeded to undertake a thorough study of them. Al-Ghazali completed his first work on Philosophy , Maqasid al-Falasifah (the Purposes of the Philosophers) between 486H/1093M - 1094M and 487H/1094M . But, al-Ghazali would be better known for his work on Tahafut al-Falasifah (the Incoherence of the Philosophers) which was completed in 488H/1095M . In Tahafut al-Filasafah, al-Ghazali rejected the concept of God as propounded by Ibn. Sina and al-Farabi with clear arguments. In al-Ghazali’s Jawahir al-Quran (the Jewels of the Quran), he tells us that the Tahafut is a work of Kalam because it repels “errors and heresies removes doubts and guards the layman’s religious belief against the confusion created by the heresies’. Actually those theories put forth by Ibn. Sina and al-Farabi were based on Greek philosophy which emphasize on reason as the main source of knowledge. The author of the Tahafut may also be regarded as a ‘philosopher’ because he knows philosophy and his criticism is ‘philosophic’. The best known response to al-Ghazali’s attack on ‘certain Muslim philosophers’ was that of Ibn. Rushd Tahafut al-Tahafut.
Al-Ghazali’s Spiritual Crisis
In 1095, al-Ghazali experienced a second personal crisis because of his study of Sufism. This second crisis was far more serious than the first because it affected his emotional and physical health. His physical powers were so weakened that the physicians could not treat him. Al-Ghazali tells us in his autobiography that when he completely lost his ability to make a choice, God delivered him. In 488H/1095M , al-Ghazali left Baghdad and devote himself completely to the Sufi path. For eleven years , he led an ascetic and contemplative life, with occasional returns to his family and society. In 499H/1106M , he again assumed public teaching at Naishpur . His famous four volumes Ihya’ was completed some time before 499H/1106M.
Al-Ghazali’s eleven- year period of spiritual retreat had convinced him that the sufis are those who uniquely follow the way to God, their mode of life is the best of all, their way the most direct of ways and their ethic is the purest.
Having himself attained the highest level of spiritual realization , al-Ghazali reflected on the state of moral and religious decadence in the Muslim community of his time . he questioned whether he should remain in seclusion. At this time, he got a place at the Nizamiyah Madrasah at Naishapur where he was able to teach.
General Conditions in al-Ghazali’s Period[5]
Among the general conditions of decadence prevailing during his time were :
1. The impact of Philosophy which were originated from Greek and Roman civilization. The Islamic scholars who was unfamiliar with it were unable to explain philosophy which based on reason. There are Muslims who based their thinking on philosophical method . This is a danger to Muslim state philosophers during the period feels that reasons and revelation cannot get along. The new discipline introduced through philosophy became a serious challenge to Islam as there are Muslims philosophers who believed that Islam is unreason.
2. The ignorant of rulers which leads to religious differences . New sects were founded which most of it are against the truth path according to the Quran and Sunnah.
3. Moral decay in the whole Islamic world. The teaching of the Quran and the Prophet were no longer the main guidelines. Muslims in all classes no longer refer to the major sources (Quran and Hadith) in any matters.
4. The rulers were living in luxury and extravagant lifestyle. Their style is very much contrast with the life of The Prophet and the Pious Caliph of Islam.
Because of the 4 factors, al-Ghazali lead to the reform of Islamic World via Islah and Tajdid .He realized that the 4 conditions is a real danger to the Muslims and will lead to destruction of Islamic World .According to Sayyid Abul A’la Maududi, among al-Ghazali’s reformation are :
1. To prevent the mis-lead philosophers from spreading their thinking, al-Ghazali and other ulama’ arranged dialogue with them to verify it. Al-Ghazali studied the philosophy and found out that philosophers jump into conclusion against Islam and were misunderstood in understanding Islam.
2. He mended the people who defend Islam against the philosophers but without proper knowledge to counter them.
3. He explained the hikmah of Shariah and gave the people the correct explanation and the clear concept of Islam.
4. He studied all new sects in Islam and clear out the Islamic and the un-Islamic in all the sects . At same time he set the limit of interpretation in Islam .
5. He gave a true code of morality of Islam to counter the decaying morality in Muslim world.
6. He condemned the system of government in the period and asked the official and rulers to reform and based their actions on Quran and Sunnah.
Imam al-Ghazali as a Scholar of Political Science
Many people still believe that political science as a discipline has its roots in ancient Greek and this tradition was later inherited by the modern Western world. But history has proven without doubt that the Islamic civilization has made tremendous contributions to mankind in regards to the establishment of a just and fair political system and order.
Generally , Imam al-Ghazali have been known more for his contributions in the fields of philosophy , tasawwuf and related topics on the development of individuals. But he has been least known for his works which touched on politics. He play a great role in the field of politics especially based on the fact that during his period the rulers were very much against the Islamic teaching. They lived in luxury and ignore the welfare of the people .
Al-Ghazali learn about politics from his tutor Imam al-Juwaini (d. 478H). al-Juwaini is also known as Imammul Haramain. It should be noted that al-Ghazali’s writings on politics are based on his own personal experiences. It is well known that al-Ghazali had served as a scholar of fiqh and also as a legal advisors in palace of the Seljuk Sultans in Nisampur. During the period of Nizam-al-Mulk, for example, al-Ghazali was given lots of trust in advising in matters relating to the administration of the State.
In one of his works, Fatihatul -Ulum , al-Ghazali begins his political philosophy regarding to the matter in the Seljuk State. According to al-Ghazali, the objectives of man’s life can be found in the affairs of religion and the world. A religious system cannot exist unless a world system exist as the world is a garden to the Hereafter. This garden will lead a person to Allah if the person uses the world as a “stepping stone” rather than making the world as a place for worldly pleasure. The worldly affairs of men will not be in order unless these 3 requirements are fulfilled[6] :
1st Requirement
· Fulfilling the needs for foods and sustenance
· Having cloth
· Having shelter
· Politics : as to organize interactions between individuals
2nd Requirement
Involves with the creation of the right tools and machines for the fulfillment of the first requirement.
3rd Requirement
The finishing touches to beautify the second requirement . For example , al-Ghazali connotes the above requirement with human body.
· the fundamentals like heart, liver and the brain.
· the tools and machines like stomach and veins.
· the finishing touches like nail and eyebrows.
Imam al-Ghazali says that what is the meaning of siyasah (politics) is to improve human affairs by guiding the people to the right path so that they may be safe both in this world and in the Hereafter[7].
In the above definition, we could see that the questions of akhlak is closely related to siyasah . Also there are very important roles for fuqaha’ (fiqh scholars) in a state. They are suppose to know all that had to be known on hukm siyasah and ways to bring peace when there are disagreement between different factions. Fiqh scholars are also advisors to the sultan, to guide him and also the people. Because of that, there is a saying that religion (din) and state (daulah) are interrelated. Religion is the foundation and the ceiling whilst the Sultan is the guardian . something which does not have a foundation will come crushing down by its ownself whilst something which does not have a guard will disappear. Al-Ghazali believed that it is not possible for a society to exist before the state ; thus the state is the first level of development and the most important for the establishment of society. Meaning, the individual rights of citizens of the society will not be fulfilled or completed unless the state exist and it has the power to ensure its orders are respected and obeyed.
In many of al-Ghazali’s writings whether in the form of risalah , makalah or kitab had stressed in many occasion on the importance of both the ruler and the state having its sovereignty as to allow it to manage the affairs of religion and the state properly. Al-Ghazali also had laid down do’s and don’ts that should be followed by a ruler :
1. A ruler should understand the real and true value of wilayah or national sovereignty and understand its importance and the responsibility of fulfilling the rights of the wilayah.
2. The Sultan should seek advice from those alim who are not interested in fulfilling their own self interest.
3. The Sultan must not only be able to control himself from acting unjust , but ensure no act of tyranny or injustice are committed by his officers.
4. The Sultan must not be arrogant (takabur) because arrogant will cause a person to look down on others. Instead, sultan should be generous and able to forgive others easily.
5. Do not do unto others what you do not want others to do unto you. A sultan should have this in mind when meeting out others.
6. The needs of the people must be taken care of as earlier as possible.
7. Sultan must not indulge in lavish lifestyle, what else if it is done at the expense of the people. The middle path should always be followed.
8. In executing his task, the sultan should not be harsh and temperamental but be gentle and kind.
9. Sultan should strive to attain the consent of the peoples stipulated by Shariah in regards to important issues.
Although al-Ghazali stresses the need for sultan to be responsible and just in ruling, yet he allows certain flexibility in this regard by allowing the use of coercive measures in order to ensure order in the state prevails.
Conclusion
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