Introduction
The period of The Abbasids witnessed the emergence of many independent Islamic states especially at the second half of its reign. This resulted from the weak central government and the fact that the Caliphate is too large to be handled by a single government. Ironically, it is also lead to the downfall of the Caliphate.

THE INDEPENDENT STATES

Spain, Sicily & North Africa
1. The Umayyad of Spain
Period: 138-422 H/756-1031 AC
Founder: Abdul Rahman al-Dakhil
Location: Cordova, Spain
During the fall of the Umayyad , only Abdul Rahman escaped from the slaughter at Abu Futrus. He made his way to Ceuta in Morocco and managed to gather a strong army. They crossed Spain and defeated Yusuf al-Fihri, the Abbasid governor. He captured Cordova and became the Caliph of Spain in 756 AC. There are 10 Umayyad Amir during the period. Spain during the Umayyad progressed rapidly in many fields such as education, music, architectural and other field which shows the remarkable progress of the dynasty. The downfall of the dynasty were lead by the weak central government in Cordova and the existence of many small city states which fought each other. This weaken the Umayyad and with the unification of the Christian powers, the Umayyad faced and uphill struggle to contain their enemies.




2. The Aghlabids
Period: 184-296 H/800-909 AC
Founder: Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab
Location: Qairawan.
When the viceroy of Qairawan refused to submit to the Abbasids, Harun al-Rashid sent his general Ibrahim in 800 AC. He managed to restore order and begun to rule almost as a semi-independent ruler. In fact, after few years, he began potrayed himself as Amir. His descendents became truly independent and held sway over a large area bounded by Morocco on the west and western Egypt on the east. They were an enterprising family and held their own as an independent rulers for 100 years. The built a strong navy and their fleet raided the coasts of France, Italy, Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily. They conquered Sicily in 902 AC and made it their base of operations for attacks on Italy. They also seized Malta and Sardinia. It was also under the Aghlabids that North Africa finally accept Islam and all traces of Latin Christians civilization disappeared from the areas forever. The Aghlabids were overthrown by the Fatimids.


3. The Hammadids
Period: 1018-1027 AC
Founder: Ali Ibn Hammad
Location: Andalusia & Cardova.
Though Ali had a lot of Barber blood in him, he pretended to be a descendant of Hadrat Ali.. He was the governor of Ceuta and Tangier, when the last puppet caliphs of Spain were on the decline (1016-1018 AC). By the time, he already conquared Malaga and established himself as the virtual leader ruler of Andalusia and later on declared himself as the Caliph at Cardova. He was followed by two other Hammadids and they held the reins of office till 1027 AC.


4. The Zirids
Period: 1012-
Founder: Ibn Ziri
Location: Granada
Founded by a Barber,Ibn Ziri (1012-1019 AC). Annexed Malaga from the Hammadids in 1051 AC.

5. The Kingdom of Seville
Period: 1023-1091 AC
Founder: House of Bani Abbad
Location: Seville
The founder was the soin of the Qadi of Seville. The Qadi had put an impostor on the throne of Cordova, who closely resembled Hisham II, the Caliph who had been forced to abdicate in 1009 AC. The Qadi’s son ousted the impostor and took over as ruler and called himself al-Mutadid and became king in his own name. The dynasrty did not accomplish much.

6. Dhu al-Nuns
Period: 1032-1085 AC
Founder: Bani Dhu al-Nun
Location: Toledo
Founded by a Barber family of Bani Dhu al-Nun . Lasted till 1085 AC.

7. The Murabits (Al-Munariyyids/ al-Murabithun)
Period: 448-541 H/1056-1147 AC
Founder: Yusof Ibn Tafshin
Location: Morocco
In the middle of the 11th century AC, a religious leader of the Berbers emerged, who established the dynasty of the Murabits, so called because their original leader (Abdullah ibn Yassin) had once lived in a ribat near the Senegal River. He gradually extended his power northwards and finally conquered the whole of Morocco 1056-1084 AC, though the man who really establish Murabit power was Yusof ibn Tafshin .


8. Al-Muwahiddin
Period: 524-667 H/1130-1209 AC
Founder: Muhammad Ibn Tumart
Location: Morocco & Spain
The death of Ali Ibn Yusof marked the decline of the Muwahhid. This was another Barber leader named Ibn Tumart who founded a sect called al-Muwahhidun which later on comquered Morocco and put an end to all Murabits and then made themselves masters of Muslim Spain, which by now was reduced to less than one-half of Spain. At the height of their power, they extended their empire to the borders of Egypt. Most of their time, however , was spent in fighting the Christians in Spain, till at last in 1212, they suffered a great defeat at Las Navas de Tolosa at the hands of the combined forces of all the Christians powers of Spain and weredriven out of Andalusia.


9. The Kalbites
Period: 361-432 H/972-1040 AC
Founder: Hasan Ibn Ali al-Kalbi
Location: Sicily
When the Fatimids moved to Egypt in 361H / 972 AC, the central control in Qairawan weakened and the government became hereditary in the line of the last Fatimid governor, Hasan Ali al-Kalbi. The Kalbites ruled in Sicily till 432 H/ 1040 AC, when there arose violent quarreled between the Sicilian Muslims and the African Muslims which resulted the state split into two. The Normans took this opportunity to attack Sicily which gradually ended the rule of the Muslims.



10. The Nasrids
Period: 1250-1492 AC
Founder:
Location: Granada
The last notable kingdom in Spain and founded at the end of the Abbasid rule. It stronghold was at Granada, called also as Gharnata. The kingdom was not strong politically, but they held to their small corner and built their own tiny world there. Many famous buildings, among which is the famous Alhambra, stand even to this day as witness to their taste and culture.

11. The Rustamids
Period: 160-296 H/ 777-909 AC
Founder: Abd Rahman b. Rustam
Location: Western Algeria
The Rustamids have an importance for the history of North African Islam quite disproportionate to the duration and extent of their political power. Abd Rahman b. Rustam, as a Persian descent founded a Khariji principality centred on Tahart or Tihart. He became Imam of all the Ibadiyya in North Africa. Tahart under the Rustamids enjoyed a great material prosperity and it acquired the name of ‘Little Iraq’.


12. The Idrisids
Period: 172-314 H/ 789- 926 AC
Founder: Idris I, was a great-grandson of Caliph Ali’s son al- Hassan.
Location: Morocco
The Idrisids were the first dynasty who attempted to introduce the doctrines of Shi’ism. The Idrisids of the Rif were threatened when the Spanish Umayyads initiated a forward policy in the Maghrib.



13. The Aghlabids
Period: 184- 296 H/ 800- 909 AC
Founder: Ibrahim I, b. Al -Aghlab
Location: Ifriqiya, Algeria, Sicily.
The first Aghlabids suppressed outbreaks of Berber Kharijism in their territories under Ziyadat-Allah, the negertic members of the family. The Aghlibs were also enthusiastic builder; Ziyadat-Allah I rebuilt the Great Mosque of Qayrawan, and Ahamd that of Tunis, and useful agricultural and irrigation works were constructed especially in the less fertile south of Ifriqiya.

14. The Ziyanids
Period: 1253-1339 AC
Location: Algeria
Succeeded the Muwahhid in Algeria.

15. The Hafsid
Period: 1228-1534 AC
Location: Tunis
Managed to break away from the Muwahhids and establish a long dynasty in the area.



16. The Marinids
Period: 1195-13th Century AC
Location: Morocco
In 1195 AC, they annexed the last stronghold of the Muwahhids in Morocco after gradually encroached the Muwahhids’ lands. In 1269 AC, they took the Moroccan capital and by 1275 AC they mopped up all Muwahhid resistence.


Egypt, Syria & Iraq
17. The Inalids
Period: 490-579 H/1096-1183 AC

18. The Mamluks
Period: 648-922 H/1250-1517 AC
Founder: Izz al-Din Aibak
Location: Egypt, Libyan desert, Barkah , Nubah (Nubiah), Massaw’ah , Syrian border and parts of Arabian Peninsula.
The Mamluk family originated from the slaves. In fact the word Mamluk means slaves (Surah al-Nahl:75). They become the rulers because of their ability and skills in administrating the country . At first , they become private officers of the amirs and sutans. Because of their abilities, they have been freed by their masters. The Mamluk dynasty were devided into 2, the first is called Bahri (648-792 H/1250-1390 AC). The second called Burji which reign was between 748-922H / 1340-1349 AC, after the downfall of the Abbasids. The first Mamluk who became the Caliph is Izz al-Din Aibak. During its superiority, the Mamluks controlled not only Egypt, but other vast areas such as the Libyan desert up to Barkah in the west, Nubah up to Massaw’ah in the south, in the northern area to the Mediterranean sea. They also controlled the Syrian border and one time they also controlled Makkah, Madinah and other Arabian states in the southern Arabian peninsula. They managed to defeat the Tartan (Mongul) under the leadership of Hulagu. Apart from their military achievements, the Mamluks also managed to develop the state in various fields such as in economics, politics and education.

19. The Ayyubids
Period: 564 H-end of the 9th century/ 1169 AC-end of the 15th century
Founder: al-Malik an-Nasir I Salah-ad-Din
Location: Egypt, Syria, Diyarbakr, the Yemen.
Ayyub, the progenitor of the dynasty, was from the Hadhbani tribe of Kurds. The celebrated Saladin was accordingly the real founder of the dynasty. He extinguished the last vestiges of Fatimid rule in Egypt and promoted in their former territories a strong Sunni religious and educational policy. Saladin’s policy was the vigorous prosecution of jihad against the Crusaders, a policy which unified Islamic enthusiasm behind him and enabled him to weld together armies of Turks, Kurds and Arabs in the common cause. Saladin granted out various parts of the Ayyubids empire including the cities of Syria, al- Jazira and the Yemen.

20. The Ismai’ilis
Period: 483-653 H/1090-1256 AC, Persia
493-671 H/1100-1273 AC, Syria.
Founder: Hassan-I Sabbah
Location: Principal line at Alamut in the Elburz, Mts. Of Persia; subsidiary branch in Syria.
In the medieval Islamic times, the extremist Shi’I Isma’ilis were regarded with fear by the Sunnis. Hasan-I Sabbah, a Persian da’I who worked to spread the cause in his own land. Hasan had secured the castle of Alamut in the Elburz, in a region adjacent to Daylam and Azerbayjan.



21. The Mirdasids
Period: 414-72 H/1023-79 AC
Founder: Asad-ad-Dawla Salih b. Mirdas
Location: Aleppo and northern Syria
The Mirsadids were part of the North Arab tribe of Kilab, who in the early eleventh century migrated northwards from the Hilla regions of Iraq to Aleppo. In Aleppo, Salih and his sons Nasr and Thimal had to defend themselves on one side against the Fatimids and Byzantines under Basil II Bulgaroctonus and Romanus III Argyrus.




22. The ‘Uqaylids
Period: 380-489 H/ 990-1096 AC
Founder: Muhammad
Location: Al- Jazira, Iraq and northern Syria
The ‘Uqaylids came from the great Bedouin tribal group of ‘Amir b. Sa’sa’a. It is mentioned that Muslim b. Quraish had a postmaster or local intelligence officer (sahib al-khabar) in every village. So, it seems that the Uqaylids were not entirely a predatory Bedouin dynasty, introduced the Abbasids administration into their territories.

23. The Marwanids
Period: 372-478 H/ 983-1085 AC
Founder: Badh
Location: Diyarbakr
The founder Badh was a Kurdish chief who seized various strongholds on the frontiers of Armenia and Kurdistan. The Marwanids recognised the ‘Abasids caliph at the outset and also had the Fatimids as neighbours in northern Syria. The Fatimids cultural influence was strong in Diyakbakr.

24. The Mazyadids
Period: 350-545 H/ 961-1150 AC
Founder: Sana’ ad- Dawla ‘Ali I b. Mazyad
Location: Hilla and central Iraq
The Mazyadids belonged to the Asad tribe, and were strongly Shi’i in sympathy. The Mazyadids showed themselves skillful organisers and diplomatists, making themselves a significant power in the shifting patterns of alliances in the Iraq of the Seljuq period. After the last Mazyadids, ‘Ali II b. Dubays, Hilla was granted out by Mas’ud to one of his generals and finally Hilla was scattered by an incoming caphical army.


25. The Hamdanids
Period: 293-394 H/905-1004 AC
Founder: Hamdan b. Hamdun
Location: al- Jazira and Syria
The Hamdanids were from the Arab tribe of Taghlib, long settled in al-Jazira. The founder of the family’s fortune, Hamdan b. Hamdun, appears in the later years of the ninth century as an ally of the Kharijis of al- Jazira. The Hamdanids achieved renown as munificent patrons of Arabic literature.

26. The Fatimids
Period: 297- 567 H/ 909- 1171 AC
Founder: ‘Ubaydallah al- Mahdi
Location: North Africa, and then Egypt and Syria.
The Fatimids claimed Alid descent and derived their name from Fatima, daughter of the Prophet and wife of the fourth caliph Ali; but Sunni opponents usually referred to them as the Ubaydiyyun, descendants of ‘Ubaydullah al- Mahdi. The first Fatimid caliph ‘Ubaydallah came from Syria to North Africa. Fatimids began to build for themselves a new capital in Egypt, that of New Cairo. Then, from Egypt the Fatimids extended into Palestine and Syria. In rivalry with the Abbasids, the Fatimids had proclaimed themselves the true caliphs. Egypt and Cairo enjoyed under the Fatimids an economic prosperity and cultural vitality which eclipsed those of contemporary Iraq and Baghdad.

27. The Tulunids
Period: 254- 292 H/ 868- 905 AC
Founder: Ahmad b. Tulun
Location: Egypt and Syria.
The Tulunids represent the first local dynasty of Egypt and Syria to secure autonomy from Baghdad. Ahmad first came to Egypt as deputy of the Abbasid governor there, then acquired the governshiphimself, extending his power into Palestine and Syria also. For the Egyptian historian, the age of the Tulunids was a golden one.

28. The Ikhshidids
Period: 323- 358 H/ 935- 969 AC
Founder: Muhammad b. Tughj al- Ikhshid
Location: Egypt and Syria.
Muhammad b. Tughj came of a Turkish military family which had already been in the Abbasids service for two generations. He was appointed governor of Egypt in 323/ 935, and secured from the caliph ar- Radi the title of Ikhshid.

Arabian Peninsula
29. The Ziyadids
Period: 204-409 H/819-1018 AC

30. The Qaramatians
Period: 281-5th century H/894-11th century AC
Founder: Abu Said ibn Bahram al-Tannabi
Location: Eastern Arabia
In 894 AC, al-Tannabi were sent out to Bahrain where he organized the tribe of Abul Qays and founded an independent state, with his capital at Mumaniyah. The dynasty became so strong and began to raid Iraq, Nejd and Hijaz. For almost 30 years (914-943 AC) they operated from eastern Arabia , creating havoc throughout the region. In 930 AC, Abu Said’s son attacked and captured Makkah and carried away the Black Stone to his capital. They held the interior of Arabia for more than a 100 years.

31. The Rasulids
Period: 626-858 H/ 1229-1454 AC
Founder: al-Malik al-Mansur Nur-ad-Din Umar I
Location: Yemen
The Yemen was, in 569 H/1714 AC, conquered by the Ayyubid Turan-Shah, Saladin’s bother, and ruled by Ayyubid princes down to 626/1229,when al-Malik al-Kamil son, Salah-ad-Din Yusuf, was forced to abandon the province. Then, the Rasulids continued Ayyubid policy in the Yemen, imitating Ayyub titulature and promoting the cause of Sunni Islam. The cultural and political links of the Rasulids with Ayyubid and Mamluk Egypt remained strong.

32. The Sulayhids
Period: 439-532 H/ 1047-1138 AC
Founder: Ali b. Muhammad
Location: Yemen
The Sulayhids ruled in Yemen as adherents of the Isma’ili da’wa. Ali b. Muhammad, a member of the South Arabian tribe of Hamdan and the son of a local qadi or judge. He defeated Abyssinian slave dynasty of the Najahids of the Tihama or coastlands. Under his son al-Mukarram Ahamad, the Sulayhid dominions reached their maximum extent.

Iran (Transoxiana & Khurasan) before the Seljuks

33. The Buyids/Buwaihids
Period : 320-447 H/932-1055 AC
Founder : Ahmad Ibn Buwayh Mu’izz al-Daulah
Location : Iraq

Under al-Mustakfi , Ahmad was made the Amir-ul-Umara ,he assumed the title of Mu’izz al-Daulah and became a virtual ruler. He has two other siblings all of whom had acquired small military commands under the Sammanids kings. They conquered Isfahan,Khuzistan and later on Kirman. In AC, they established themselves at Shiraz and in 945 AD, Ahmad marched on Baghdad and the Caliph accepted him as his protector. The Buwaihids encouraged the Shiite doctrines but they were not extremists and did not make any ideological alliance with the Fatimids of Egypt.



34. The Dulafids
Period: 210-284 H/825-898 AC

35. Banijurids
Period: 233-337 H/848-948 AC

36. Ghaurids
Period: 6th –7th century / 12th –13th century AC
Founder: Ghiatuddin
Location: India

When they were campaigning against the Ghaznavids, Bahram Shah of Ghazni had captured and killed 2 Ghaurid chiefs, Qutbuddin and Saifuddin. Later on, a younger brother of the two named Alauddin attacked the Ghazni and destroy the city of Mahmud. It was the nephew of Alauddin , Ghiathuddin who become the king of the Ghaurids. He made his brother , Shahabuddin Muhammad as the governor of Ghazni and later on famously known in the history of India as Muhammad Ghauri.


37. Ghaznavids
Period: 367-583 H/997-1187 AC
Founder: Alptigin
Location: Ghazni, Afghanistan &India

Named Ghazni after its capital. Founded by Alptigin, a member of royal bodyguard who was the governor of Khurasan. He later on settled at Ghazni and slowly made it into an independent kingdom. His son-in-law Subuktigin (967-997 AC) was an even more capable man and it was he who really founded the dynasty. He made a few conquest , penetrating India as far as Peshawar. At same time they managed to conquer Khorasan from the Samanids.


38. The Samanids
Period: 204- 395 H/ 819-1005 AC
Founder: Ahmad I b. Asad b. Saman, governor of Farghana.
Location: Khurasan and Transoxania.
The founder of the Samanids line was one Saman- Khuda, a dihqan or local landowner in the Balkh district of northern Afghanistan, later claimed descent from the old Sasanid emperors of Persia. Saman Khuda embraced Islam and his four grandsons served the caliph al- Makmun in Khurasan. By keeping the caravan routes across Central Asia open, the Samanids assured the economic stability of their territories. The Samanids amirs made their court of Bukhara a centre not only of the traditional Arabic learning, but also of the renaissance of the New Persian language and literature.

39. The Tahirids
Period: 205-259 H/ 821-873 AC
Founder: Tahir I b. A­l- Husayn, called Dhu-l-Yaminayn.
Location: Khurasan
The aim political and military efforts of the Tahirids were aimed at keeping in check Shi’i du’at or propagandists in the Caspian provinces, and at combating the growing power of the Saffarids in Sistan, an administrative dependency in Khurasan. However, they failed.

40. The Safarids
Period: 254 - 290 H
Founder: Yaacub bin al-Laith and his brother, Amr.
Location: Sijistan (Sistan), Fars.
Founded by Ya’qub who ruled the local Islamic state for almost 30 years. He is a blacksnith who later on became a warlord in the period of Salih bin Nasr (Nadr). Rebelled against Dirham ibn Nasr and in 253 H/867 Ac, he captured the whole Sijistan. However, the Abbasid Caliphate refused to recognised him as the leader in Khurasan . The refusal lead him to attack Baghdad but was fruitless when he was defeated at Dair al-Aqul. In the returned journey , he died in Jundai Shabur on Syawal 265H/879 AC). His brother Amr replaced him and the family continued to rules Sistan up until 558 H/1163 AC.

41. Khawarizm Shah
Period: 305-617 H/917-1220 AC
Founder: Khawarizm Shah
Location: Khurasan, Bukhara, Samarqand & Persia.

The defeat of the Seljuks by the Ghur Turks made the Khawarizm Shah independent. He managed to conquered all the land to the west and west of his territory and became quite a powerful monarh. The greatest ruler of this line was Alauddin Muhammad (1199-1220 AC).

42. The Ilyasids
Period: 320-357 H/932-968 AC

43. The Kakuyids/Kakwayihids
Period: 398-443 H/1008-1051 AC

Caucasus (before the Seljuks)

44. The Shaddids
Period: 340-571 H/ 951-1174 AC
Founder: Muhammad b. Shaddad
Location: Arran and eastern Armenia
The Shaddadids were arose in northern Persia during the ‘Daylami interlude, and it is probable that they were of Kurdish origin. In the middle year of the tenth century, the Kurdish adventurer Muhammad b. Shaddad established himself at Dvin and Ganja then became the capital of the main line of Shaddadids for century.

45. The Sajids /Sadjids
Period: 266-318 H/879-930 AC

46. The Musafirids/Sallavids
Period: 304-483 H/916-1090 AC

47. The Rawwadiah
Period: 4th century-463 H/10th century-1071 AC

48. The Rubuyiah
Period: 660-760 AC

49. The Bawardiah
Period: 665-1349 AC

50. The Badussawids
Period: 665-1599 AC

Seljuks & Atabeg

51. The Seljuks
Period : 429-706 H/1037-1300 AC
Founder : Tughril
Location: Iraq-Parsi,Kirman and Minor Asia.
The Seljuks had 4 great kings; Tughril, his son Alp Arsalan, his grandson Malikshah and Malikshah’s son Sultan Sanjar. Tughril and his son Alp Arsalan increased their power to the west, and soon they also conquered the territory lying between Iraq and the Mediterranean. What was more important, Muslim arms began to prevail against the Byzantines. The Turkmen under Tughril overthrew the splendid civilization which enlightened Buwayhids had built, and everything seemed to fallin ruin, and yet the Seljuks produced kings who raised the glory of Islam higher than ever. This process was repeated under the Mongols, then the Timurid Tartars, and later still under the Ottoman Turks and the Moghul.
52. The Ismailite
Period: 483-653H/1090-1256

53. The Ortuqids
Period: 491-811 H/1098-1408 AC
Founder: Ortuq ibn Akrab
Location: Diarbekr
Ortuq create a small kingdom in Diabekr and founded the Ortuqid dynasty there.

54. The Burids
Period: 97-549 H/1104-1154 AC
Founder: Tughtugin
Location: Damascus
The founder was of the Altabeg and founded his dynasty in Damascus.


55. The Zurgids
Period: 521-619 H/1127-1222 AC

56. The Eldeguzids
Period: 531-622 H/1136-1225 AC

57. The Begleginids
Period: 539-630 H/1145-1233 AC

58. The Kingdom Northern Armenia
Period: 1100-1207 AC
Founder: Sukman ibn Ortuq
Location: Northern Armenia
The founder is the son of Ortuq ibn Akrab of the Ortuqids dynasty. He, with his brother Il-Ghavi fought bravely against the Frankish kingdom and principalities of Palestine.

59. The Kingdom of Azerbaijan
Period: 1136-1225 AC
Founder: Ildigiz
Location: Azerbaijan
The founder is an Altabeg of the Seljuks.

60. The Seljuks of Iraq
Period: 12th-13th century AC
Founder: Muhammad ibn Ildigiz.
Location: Iraq
The founder is the son of Ildigiz . He was so powerful that he became the virtual ruler of the kingdoms of Seljuk of Iraq.

61. The Hazarasfids
Period: 550-827 H/1155-1424 AC
Location: Luristan
A minor state of the Altabegs .

62. The Salghurids
Period: 543-668 H/ 1148-1270 AC
Founder: Muzaffar-ad-Din Songur
Location: Fars
The Salghurids ruled in Fars for some 120 years as tributaries first of the Seljuqs. The founder of the Fars dynasty, Sonqur, took advantage of the warfare and disputes which disturbed the reign of the Seljuq sultan, Mas’ud b. Muhammad. Fars enjoyed considerable prosperity under the rule of Izzad-ad-Din Sa’d b. Zangi.

Anatolia & Turkey
63. Seljuks of Rome




CONCLUSION
The emergence of independent states can be concluded in proving the weaknesses of the Abbasid’s in gripping and binding their territories and provinces in their power. Too much expansions of provinces and inability to rule the variety, may be the other factors leading to the emergence which finally had weaken the whole system and structure of Abbasid until its downfall.


References
Hitti, Philip K. History of the Arabs (6th ed.). London: McMillan 1956

Kennedy, Hugh. The Early Abbasid Caliphate. London :Croom Helm 1981.

Kennedy, Hugh. The Prophet & The Age of the Caliphate. New York: Longman 1986.

Mahmud, Sayyid Fayyaz. A Short History of Islam. London: Oxford Press 1960.